The loss of a loved one is one of the most painful experiences in life. What remains are our memories of the person and of the time we spent together. Remembering the deceased can be very painful, but it can also have a positive effect on bereavement. Our memories allow us to continue the social bond with the deceased in our minds and to integrate the loss into our own life story. In this context, it may be important whether the bereaved focus on remembering the person's life or the events surrounding their death.

In their article, Dr. Tabea Wolf (University of Hohenheim), Dr. Emily L. Mroz (Yale School of Medicine) and Dr. Wendy G. Lichtenthal (University of Miami Miller School of Medicine) examine how often bereaved adults remember events related to the death of a close other and how these memories may be affected by the circumstances of the death. This research is based on a survey of 100 bereaved adults, which was conducted at Ulm University and led by Dr. Tabea Wolf.

Remembering the dying days of a deceased close other

In an online interview, participants were asked to report up to ten memories about important events that they had experienced with a deceased close other. A total of 786 memories were reported. Most of these memories related to the life of the deceased. About a fifth of the memories, related directly or indirectly to the death of the loved one. The authors categorized these memories into four types:

• Final memories: This category includes events that describe the transition from life to death, as well as memories of moments just before death.
• Health events leading to death: Memories of health developments that led to or contributed to the death, such as accidents or the diagnosis of a serious illness.
• Last time events: Memories of events or activities that the deceased experienced for the last time, such as the last Christmas spent together.
• Temporal markers: Memories in which death is used as a temporal reference (e.g. “A year before his death...”).

How are the dying days remembered, and how are these memories affected by the circumstances of loss?

Participants reported thinking and talking more frequently about memories of the dying days than about memories of the deceased person’s life. This is particularly true for memories that fall into the category of the so-called final memories. How often the bereaved think or talk about their final memories depends on the circumstances of loss. If the loss happened a longer time ago, the final memories are less frequently thought about and talked about. This may indicate that the loss has been integrated into the life story of the bereaved.

In contrast, the final memories are remembered more frequently, the older the bereaved were at the time of the loss. The same pattern was observed with respect to the category of health events leading to death. Taken together, these results suggest that memories of the dying days serve as a directive function: They help bereaved individuals to prepare for future challenges, further loss experiences, and, ultimately, their own death.

The memories of the dying days are rated as more negative compared to memories of the deceased person’s life. This is particularly true for memories about health events leading to death, and also depends on the circumstances of the loss. The ability to say goodbye plays an important role here: Health events that led to death (e.g. illness or accidents) are remembered more negatively if a person was unable to say goodbye to their loved one. However, the results of the study also suggest that these events are perceived as less negative over time.

What are the practical implications of these findings for dealing with grief and the bereaved?

After the death of a close other, memories of the deceased person’s life gain importance. These memories are often perceived as positive and can be a powerful resource for the bereaved. When supporting people in grief, techniques could be used that help the bereaved to keep alive the many, often fond, memories of their time together.

However, most bereaved not only remember the deceased person’s life, but also events surrounding their death. Even if these memories are often perceived as emotionally negative, thinking and talking about the dying days can help to integrate the loss into one’s own life story. As such, these memories are also a resource for coping with grief. The bereaved should be given the opportunity to talk about their loss – not only in bereavement counselling but also in everyday interactions. 

The results of the study therefore have not only practical but also social relevance. Death is an inevitable part of life. That is why it is important to talk about these issues in an open way and to encourage a public discourse on death, dying and bereavement.

Reference:

Wolf, T., Mroz, E. L., & Lichtenthal, W. G. (2024). Remembering the life and dying days of a deceased close other: Memory recall and associations with loss context. Death Studies, Advance online publication. doi: 10.1080/07481187.2024.2414257

New Scale for Measuring Anger: How Can We Accurately Capture Anger?

Anger is one of the most intense emotions people experience, playing a significant role in both personal and professional life. But how exactly can anger be measured? This is the question Robin Umbra and Ulrike Fasbender from the University of Hohenheim set out to answer in their new research article, "How to Capture the Rage? Development and Validation of a State-Trait Anger Scale." They have developed an innovative tool for measuring anger.

Why Is This Important?

Anger can lead to conflict, stress, and aggression, particularly in the workplace. Although this emotion has been discussed in literature and philosophy for centuries, it’s only in recent decades that scientists have systematically studied it. Especially in professional settings, understanding anger is crucial for preventing conflicts and promoting a positive work environment. The new scale can help accurately capture when and why people feel angry—whether it’s a short-term reaction (State Anger) or a more stable personality trait (Trait Anger).

Anger in Different Cultures—Differences and Similarities

One fascinating aspect of this research is its look at cultural differences in the perception of anger. The study investigated whether English and German speakers experience anger differently. The findings show that while there are few differences in short-term anger reactions, the two groups differ when it comes to long-term tendencies toward anger. This insight is especially important for international companies managing multicultural teams.

Anger and Aggression—What the Research Reveals

Another key finding of the study is the link between anger and aggressive behavior. The researchers discovered that anger is not only related to obvious forms of aggression like arguments or verbal attacks but also to more subtle behaviors such as social exclusion or harmful humor in the workplace. Understanding these dynamics can help companies develop better conflict management and team-building strategies.

What Can Companies Do?

This new scale offers practitioners in human resources, coaching, and psychology a valuable tool. It helps identify emotional tensions within teams and understand who is prone to long-term anger and in what situations acute anger arises. With this knowledge, workplaces can be designed to detect and resolve conflicts early, before they escalate.

A Breakthrough in Emotion Research?

This new anger scale is not just of interest to scientists. Leaders and HR managers could benefit from it as well, using it to promote the mental health and well-being of their employees. Anger is a part of everyday work life—but with the right tools, this emotion can be managed positively.

Reference: Umbra, R., & Fasbender, U. (2024). How to Capture the Rage? Development and Validation of a State-Trait Anger Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment. DOI: 10.1080/00223891.2024.2390990.

In today’s knowledge-driven economy, leveraging employee expertise is essential for business success. As the age range of workforces become broader due to demographic changes, it becomes increasingly diverse in terms of experience and perspectives. Older employees contribute invaluable practical knowledge, while younger employees bring fresh insights from recent education. Effective knowledge exchange between these groups is vital for long-term organizational success. However, the process can be challenging, as employees may struggle to identify who to share knowledge with or seek knowledge from. A key, yet underexplored, factor in this dynamic is upward social comparison—when employees compare themselves to colleagues they perceive as more skilled or knowledgeable.

Investigating upward social comparison at work

In their paper, “Conquering Knowledge Exchange Barriers with Age Differences: A Stress Appraisal Perspective on the Consequences of Upward Social Comparisons,” Laura Rinker and Prof. Dr. Ulrike Fasbender from the University of Hohenheim together with Prof. Dr. Fabiola H. Gerpott (WHU – Otto Beisheim School of Management) and Prof. Dr. Anne Burmeister (University of Cologne) examine the effects of these comparisons on knowledge exchange across age groups. The research integrates a social comparison perspective with the challenge-hindrance stress model, investigating how employees’ perceptions of upward comparisons—as either motivating challenges or stress-inducing hindrances—can significantly influence their willingness to share or seek knowledge. The study also explores how age differences between coworkers affect these comparisons.

Upward social comparisons hinder knowledge exchange – but age differences can lower this obstacle<o:p></o:p>

Two experimental studies involving over 600 participants revealed that upward social comparisons lead to reduced knowledge sharing, indicating that employees feel threatened by colleagues’ perceived superiority. However, this effect diminishes when these colleagues are younger or older than the focal employee. For instance, younger employees are more comfortable sharing knowledge with older colleagues, and vice versa. Interestingly, the anticipated positive effect of perceiving superior colleagues as a challenge, which would encourage knowledge exchange, was not supported by the findings.

What can organizations do to leverage the social side of knowledge exchange?

To foster better knowledge exchange, organizations should consider strategies that address the social dynamics of their teams. Assembling mixed-age teams can mitigate the barriers posed by social comparisons, creating an environment where diverse perspectives and experiences are more freely exchanged. However, to maximize the benefits of age diversity, organizations must also promote a positive climate that values all age groups. Implementing effective HR practices that support a culture of inclusivity and respect can help create a supportive environment, enhancing the overall knowledge exchange process.

Reference (access freely available):

Rinker, L., Fasbender, U., Gerpott, F.H., & Burmeister, A. (2024). Conquering knowledge exchange barriers with age differences: A stress appraisal perspective on the consequences of upward social comparisons. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. Advance Online Publication. doi: 10.1111/joop.12545 [PDF]

As the population ages and the retirement age increases, company workforces are becoming more age-diverse. Concurrently, our economic system is undergoing a transformation into a knowledge-based economy, in which knowledge, rather than physical goods and resources, serves as a strategic resource for profits and competitive advantage. The transfer of knowledge specifically, the targeted passing on of knowledge between older and younger employees is therefore becoming increasingly important. One of the key challenges facing companies is how to retain the knowledge that older employees have accumulated over their careers when they retire. This is sometimes referred to as 'pension brain drain'. In the absence of this knowledge, younger employees may be unable to make informed decisions. At the same time, they contribute valuable technical expertise and up-to-date knowledge from their professional training. It is essential to implement effective knowledge transfer strategies to maintain and expand the stock of knowledge.

What insights can research offer on this topic?

In their German review article, "Empirische Evidenz zum Wissenstransfer zwischen jüngeren und älteren Mitarbeitenden - Aktueller Forschungsstand und Ausblick für zukünftige Forschung" published in the Psychologische Rundschau, Laura Rinker and Dr. Ulrike Fasbender from the Department of Business and Organizational Psychology at the University of Hohenheim examine the current state of research on knowledge transfer between age groups. To this end, 30 relevant studies were identified, which served as the foundation for the article.

What are the key theories on the transfer of knowledge between older and younger employees?

1. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986): This theory elucidates the formation of social identity through group affiliations (e.g., age) and the potential influence of ageist stereotypes on knowledge transfer.
2. Intergroup Contact Theory: Building on Allport's contact hypothesis (1954), this theory posits that intergroup contact between different age groups can mitigate prejudice and facilitate knowledge exchange.
3. SECI model (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995) The model outlines a four-phase process for knowledge creation: The four phases are socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization. It distinguishes between tacit knowledge (difficult to express in words) and explicit knowledge (easy to express in words) and demonstrates how these can be exchanged between generations.
4. Lifespan Development Theories: These theories examine the development of individuals over the course of their lives, identifying the factors that influence this process.

What factors facilitate the exchange of knowledge between older and younger employees?

Individual factors, such as the perception of possessing relevant knowledge and the sense of responsibility to disseminate it, facilitate the transfer of knowledge. Motivation to exchange knowledge and awareness of different types of knowledge also play a role. Interpersonal factors, such as high levels of communication skills and long-lasting relationships between age groups, facilitate the transfer of tacit knowledge in particular. From an organizational standpoint, opportunities for social interaction and an intergenerational work environment can facilitate knowledge transfer.

What input factors have a negative impact on the exchange of knowledge between older and younger employees?

One potential obstacle to knowledge exchange is resistance to change and inertia among older employees.

What are the components of the knowledge exchange process between employees of different age groups?

The knowledge process can be broken down into three distinct components:

• Behaviour: The sharing, receiving, and seeking of knowledge.
• Process characteristics: The directionality of the transfer (unidirectional vs. bidirectional) and the modality (offline vs. online) are also important considerations.
• Knowledge management approaches: Intergenerational teams and programs, such as training and mentoring (traditional and reverse mentoring), facilitate knowledge transfer.

What are the key output factors resulting from the exchange of knowledge between older and younger employees? 

Individual outputs include the application of new knowledge in everyday work tasks, innovation, increased motivation and commitment, as well as the fulfilment of basic needs, which strengthens loyalty to the company. Interpersonal outputs include enhanced relationships and mutual appreciation between the age groups.

What factors facilitate the transfer of knowledge between older and younger employees?

The presence of positive framework conditions, such as an open and honest personality, a fundamental interest in knowledge transfer and a desire among younger employees to develop, can facilitate the transfer of knowledge between older and younger employees. A high capacity to absorb new knowledge also encourages the transfer of knowledge. Negative influences include age differences and conflicting personalities. Organisational factors such as financial constraints, high workloads and economic pressure can present obstacles to knowledge transfer, while clear, flat hierarchies facilitate this process.

What research gaps could be identified?

Rinker and Fasbender have identified a number of research gaps.

• The effect of emotional factors and the fear of older employees being replaceable on the transfer of knowledge.
• The impact of hybrid work formats on knowledge transfer, particularly since the Coronavirus pandemic.
• The impact of knowledge hoarding and knowledge hiding on knowledge transfer.
• The effect of knowledge transfer on interpersonal relationships and organisational outcomes.
• The practical application of acquired knowledge in the context of everyday working life.

These aspects provide a wealth of potential avenues for future research projects, with the aim of further enhancing the understanding and effectiveness of knowledge transfer between older and younger employees.

Reference (access freely available):

Rinker, L. & Fasbender, U. (2024). Empirische Evidenz zum Wissenstransfer zwischen jüngeren und älteren Mitarbeitenden. Psychologische Rundschau. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1026/0033-3042/a000685 [PDF]

The well-being of one person is not more important than the well-being of another person, is it? It matters to consider the well-being consequences of perspective-taking for both parties involved, the target of perspective-taking, and the perspective-taker themselves. Prof. Dr. Ulrike Fasbender (University of Hohenheim), Prof. Dr. Wladislaw Rivkin (Trinity College Dublin), and Prof. Dr. Fabiola H. Gerpott (WHU Düsseldorf) thus conducted a dyadic experience sampling study and found that perspective-taking is beneficial for the well-being of the coworker, yet detrimental to the well-being of the perspective-taker.

Specifically, we demonstrate that perspective-taking benefits coworker well-being through higher support received from the perspective taker. However, perspective-taking lowers the perspective-taker’s well-being by depleting their self-regulatory resources!

There are clearly two sides of a coin.

What are the benefits of perspective-taking at work?

First and foremost, it's essential to grasp the concept of perspective-taking: it's a cognitive process wherein an individual starts from their viewpoint and gradually aligns with what the other person might be thinking. Research demonstrates that engaging in perspective-taking leads to increased support among coworkers. This support, in turn, lessens an employee's cognitive and physiological load while carrying out their tasks. For instance, when one colleague demonstrates a more efficient approach to completing a task, it conserves a significant amount of energy. Put simply, perspective-taking is good for coworkers’ well-being!

 
What are the costs of practicing perspective-taking for oneself?

The focal employee must consciously adjust their thought process to prevent making judgments solely based on their viewpoint and, instead, align with the coworker's perspective. This entails suppressing selfish and egoistic impulses. According to the self-regulation theory, this process taps into a shared reservoir of energy within the focal employee. As a result, they may feel more fatigued in the evening, as they have exceeded their resources on adopting others' perspectives, leaving them with less energy for leisure activities that would benefit their well-being. In other words, taking the perspective of coworkers is exhausting and thus a risk for one’s well-being!

 
What can employees do about it, and how can the organization support them?

While perspective-taking comes with benefits for coworkers, it is relevant to raise awareness of the potential costs for the perspective-taker. Importantly, this is not to say that people should engage in less perspective-taking. Instead, our findings point to the self-regulatory resources that need to be invested for the perspective taker, which entails a risk to their well-being.

Employees can counteract self-regulatory resource depletion by engaging in active recovery. To support employees’ recovery, organizations can for example encourage employees to incorporate micro-breaks into their workday or support employees in detaching from work by asking them to engage in boundary management activities that allow them to actively draw a line between their workday and their leisure time activities.

Moreover, self-regulation strategies can offset some of the adverse effects of depleted self-regulation resources. For instance, incorporating daily rewards as a specific self-regulation tactic can mitigate the negative impact. These rewards might involve treating oneself to something special. However, it's worth noting that these strategies necessitate a certain level of self-regulatory investment. In cases where a focal employee is already heavily depleted, a quick and effortless solution to counteract end-of-day fatigue could be to simply watch a short, amusing video.

Reference:  

Fasbender, U., Rivkin, W., & Gerpott, F. H. (2023). Good for you, bad for me? The daily dynamics of perspective taking and well-being in coworker dyads. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000367 [PDF]

psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding

How organizations can design work to foster the change support of employees

In today's dynamic business landscape, change management plays a pivotal role in maintaining competitiveness. Recognizing that employees are the cornerstone of every organization, they hold the key to successful change implementation.

Traditionally, research has primarily focused on individual factors that influence employees’ reactions to change, such as attitudes and demographic characteristics. However, Prof. Dr. Ulrike Fasbender and Prof. Dr. Fabiola H. Gerpott venture beyond this scope by considering how employees can be motivated through work design to engage in change support, thus ‘working smarter’. For this purpose, they examine how task-related and social aspects of work – collectively known as “work design” – can shape employees’ motivation to support change initiatives.

Prof. Dr. Fasbender and Prof. Dr. Gerpott argued that the work design characteristics of job autonomy and job complexity play a more intricate role in predicting change support than conventionally acknowledged within the work design literature. Specifically, they proposed a dual-pathway model in which job complexity can impact employees’ reactions to change in two distinct ways: it can stimulate change support through active exploration of unknown work-related procedures, behaviors, and skills, but it can also lead to frustration via cognitive overload. Conversely, they suggested that job autonomy positively influences change support by encouraging active exploration and simultaneously reduces frustration by mitigating cognitive overload during change processes.

Further, they considered how good relationships with colleagues as a social context variable influence the link between both work design characteristics and employees’ reactions to change. They expected that could buffer the adverse effects of job complexity and boost the positive effects of job autonomy.

To test these hypotheses, the researchers collected data across three waves in 2021 as part of a larger research project. Specifically, they surveyed employees who reported that they had experienced the introduction of a new technology as a change at work. A total of 470 employees between the ages of 19 and 66 years participated at all measurement points in the study. The participants offered a variety of different work contexts (e.g., working hours, percentage of IT use), and change characteristics (e.g., introduction time, type of technology, information channel), adding to the generalizability of the study.

What is the role of job autonomy and job complexity?

In their study, Prof. Dr. Fasbender and Prof. Dr. Gerpott discovered that greater job autonomy was connected to employees’ increased active exploration and reduced cognitive overload. In turn, these outcomes were associated with more change support and less frustration. Additionally, the data indeed revealed that job complexity was associated with increased active exploration, but it was also linked to heightened cognitive overload. This, in turn, indirectly led to greater change support but also contributed to increased frustration as an unintended consequence of job complexity during periods of change.

How do good relationships with colleagues come into play?

The researchers discovered that having good relationships with colleagues strengthened the connection between job autonomy (but not job complexity) and active exploration, ultimately fostering employees’ support for change. However, good relationships with colleagues did not affect the links between job autonomy and job complexity with cognitive overload. Thus, good relationships with colleagues could not buffer the adverse effects of job complexity on frustration.

How can organization use these research results to design work?

• Organizations should support and create job autonomy among their employees, for instance by allowing employees to schedule their own work. That can facilitate employees’ change support via more active exploration as well as lower their frustration by reducing cognitive load.
• The positive effects of job autonomy can be enhanced within a social context marked by constructive, genuine, and collaborative interactions among colleagues. To cultivate such a positive social atmosphere, organizations can facilitate interaction opportunities, such as providing social spaces that allow employees to socialize during work.
• A hybrid or virtual environment could challenge the contact quality within teams, as individuals may encounter heightened feelings of isolation and a diminished sense of workplace support. To counteract this risk, organizations could consider implementing virtual social rituals, such as introducing virtual or hybrid coffee breaks.
• Job complexity, while advantageous for fostering change support through increased active exploration, can simultaneously contribute to frustration due to heightened cognitive overload when facing change. While reducing job complexity may not be feasible in numerous roles, organizations should recognize the potential drawbacks associated with it. To mitigate these adverse effects, organizations can aid in the development of coping strategies and establish platforms for employees to channel their frustration. For instance, providing avenues for employees to voice complaints can help prevent more detrimental outcomes.
  
  

Reference:

Fasbender, U., & Gerpott, H. F. (2023). Designing work for change and its unintended side effects. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 145 (103913). doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2023.103913 [PDF]

www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001879123000738

Friendships at work provide employees with a sense of belonging. In fact, most studies underline the positive effects of friendships at work, such as higher employee well-being, boosts in cooperation, creativity and workplace innovation, and more effective organizational functioning.

But do friendships at work have only positive consequences? Indeed, the expectations of friends and employees can be contradictory. While we expect impartiality from employees, we expect affection and favorable treatment from friends. This can lead to inter-role conflicts between the role as employee and the role as friend. One reaction to this could be incivility toward others.

Across two comprehensive studies (with over 400 participants each), the team around Prof. Dr. Ulrike Fasbender demonstrated that having friends at work was not directly but indirectly linked to instigated incivility through inter-role conflict and subsequent resource depletion. Having friends at work can drain the resources of employees because they have difficulty reconciling the conflicting demands of both roles. The findings further show that workplace friendships led to instigated incivility toward coworkers, especially other coworkers rather than workplace friends. Further, employees’ workplace friendship self-efficacy buffered these risks and side effects of workplace friendships. This indicates that employees with greater self-efficacy are better able to cope with the competing demands of the role of employee and friend.

What role does self-efficacy play with regard to friendships at work?

Employees with higher workplace friendship self-efficacy are better able to manage the simultaneous demands of employee and friend roles. Employees who are more confident in their ability to manage their workplace friendships are better able to navigate the tensions between the conflicting demands of their roles as employee and friend. Self-efficacy can therefore buffer the detrimental downstream consequences of workplace friendships on incivility.

How can the negative effects of friendships at work be avoided?

Although friendships at work have several advantages and can enrich working life, employees need to be aware of the risks and side effects of workplace friendships. Employees may acknowledge the downsides of workplace friendships to be able to manage their social relationships at work more effectively. To do so, it might be important to set expectations about professional interactions with workplace friends. For example, establishing that challenging each other in meetings is part of one’s professional role can alleviate concerns about hurting the feelings of a workplace friend. In addition, setting expectations around the boundaries of one’s availability to workplace friends can be important to protect time during the day to get work done. Scheduling dedicated times, such as lunch or coffee breaks, might be more effective than having to navigate frequent interruptions by workplace friends throughout the workday.

Reference (open access):

Fasbender, U., Burmeister, A., & Wang, M. (2023). Managing the risks and side effects of workplace friendships: The moderating role of workplace friendship self-efficacy. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 143 (103875). doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2023.103875 [PDF]

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001879123000350

Technological progress and the associated use of new technologies in the workplace are fundamentally changing the working environment. In addition, demographic change is leading to a more age-diverse workforce in companies. Retirement is increasingly delayed and even retirement no longer automatically means leaving working life – these developments make it all the more important to learn the lifelong use of new technologies.

Previous research shows a negative correlation between age and technology acceptance. But why is this?

Prof. Dr. Ulrike Fasbender and Laura Rinker of the University of Hohenheim and Prof. Dr. Fabiola H. Gerpott of the WHU Otto Beisheim School of Management made it their mission to answer this question. To this purpose, the researchers combined findings on aging processes with research on the use of technology in companies. The basis is the technology acceptance model, which states that the perceived benefit and user-friendliness determine the attitude toward new technologies.

Fasbender and colleagues supplement this base with two age-specific processes: 

On the one hand, with a motivational pathway based on one’s time perspective: How much time and opportunities do I still see for myself in my professional future? The closer the perceived end of one’s working life approaches, the more limited this time perspective can become. This could raise questions about the personal benefits of new technologies.

On the other hand, the researchers assume that age influences technology acceptance via a capability pathway. This includes the perceived development of one’s cognitive performance: Do I feel that as I get older, I have a harder time processing information quickly and organizing my work?  Such doubts about one’s cognitive performance could contribute to the feeling that learning new technologies is difficult.

However, these processes do not take place in a vacuum but are influenced by external factors such as leaders. Therefore, Fasbender and colleagues looked at the concept of the digital leader. This leadership style is characterized by a positive attitude of the leader toward new technologies. The assumption: Digital leaders can buffer the adverse effects of age on technology acceptance.

So what about age and technology acceptance? 

To investigate these correlations in practice, a study has been carried out with 643 employees from different industries in Germany.

The data shows that, as expected, technology acceptance decreases with increasing age due to motivational processes. The acceptance of new technology is primarily shaped by the perceived future job opportunities, but not the perceived remaining time in the job. The fact that technology is perceived as useful seems to be mainly related to whether one has the feeling that one’s own professional future still has opportunities in store. How long one expects to continue working, on the other hand, plays a subordinate role.

However, the assumed capability path had surprises in store: While age did not affect the perceived processing speed, the perceived ability to self-organize appeared to increase with age. Contrary to hypotheses, younger employees reported perceiving more difficulty in their self-organization than older employees. Thus, age was found to have a positive effect on technology acceptance, contrary to assumptions about the ability pathway.

Fasbender and colleagues see explanations for this unexpected result in the fact that older employees have accumulated expertise and knowledge about self-organization over time, which younger employees lack. Also, considerations that younger generations may generally have a lower attention and concentration span due to social media trends provide an approach for future research to investigate this phenomenon.

What influence does the leader have?

Previous research has established a generally positive correlation between different leadership styles and technology acceptance. The collected data makes it clear that digital leaders in particular mitigate the negative effects that age can have on technology acceptance due to declining motivation. Digital leaders help to ensure that even older employees do not lose sight of the opportunities that await them in their future professional lives.

How can companies make older employees embrace new technologies?

• Age-specific mentoring programs can help older employees share their wealth of experience. This can have a positive effect on their perceived future job opportunities and increase their motivation.
• Work models that allow for more autonomy can also improve the prospects of older employees. Autonomy can be seen, for example, in the decision on working methods and work organization.  
• Organizations should provide needs-based services to support employees with their organizational skills, for example through interventions or the establishment of collegial assistance.
• Companies should help leaders to acquire the necessary skills to become digital leaders so that they can take advantage of the positive effects of this orientation. For this purpose, the necessary competencies should be evaluated and specifically promoted based on adequate competence models.

Reference (access freely available):

Fasbender, U., Gerpott, F. H., & Rinker, L. (2023). Getting ready for the future, is it worth it? A dual pathway model of age and technology acceptance at work. Work, Aging and Retirement, 9 (4), 358-375. doi: 10.1093/workar/waac035 [PDF]

https://academic.oup.com/workar/advance-article/doi/10.1093/workar/waac035/6832114

The aging of society has received more and more attention in recent years, because as society ages, the importance of late and sustainable career development increases. An extension of working life can certainly have positive effects, since the valued knowledge and skills of older employees are retained. However, the prospect of additional years of work can also lead to inertia and a lack of motivation.

What role does age or aging experience play in terms of motivation?

How old we are is written on our identity card. The experience of aging relates differently to the individual perception of aging. On the one hand we experience personal development and increasing self-knowledge, but on the other hand also social losses and physical limitations with increasing age. Each person perceives the aging process differently. In order to understand the role that age and aging experiences play in terms of commitment to work and the motivation to continue working beyond retirement age, Prof. Dr. Fasbender and colleagues conducted a comprehensive study of 346 professionals aged 40 to 68.

Aging experiences, psychological capital and career development

The study showed that, on the one hand, personal development and increasing self-knowledge strengthen work commitment and the motivation to continue working beyond retirement age. On the other hand, social losses lead to a decrease in work commitment and motivation to continue working. Physical limitations showed no connection to work commitment and motivation to continue working. In order to better understand these connections, the researchers also examined the psychological processes, i.e. why aging experiences help determine our careers. The so-called "psychological capital" plays an important role here. Psychological capital includes an adaptive set of psychological resources including confidence, hope, resilience, and optimism. The results of the study showed that aging experiences either increase or deplete psychological capital, which in turn explains why we are more or less engaged at work and correspondingly more or less motivated to want to continue working beyond retirement age.

What can career advisers and companies do to increase work engagement and motivation (for the desire to work longer)?

• Counselors and organizations should focus on finding ways to strengthen the pooling of psychological resources (i.e. psychological capital)
• Organizations can design work for older employees in a way that enables learning and personal development as well as social exchange between employees
• Career advisors can strengthen the psychological capital of older workers through training; the mediation should be provided by a trainer or career counselor, as this is more effective than measures with other material (e.g. via online materials). Even a one-day training session can sustainably increase a person's psychological capital.

Reference (access freely available):

Fasbender, U., Vignoli, M., & Topa, G. (2022). Understanding why aging experiences shape late career development: The mediating role of psychological capital. Career Development Quarterly. doi: 10.1002/cdq.12301 [PDF]

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cdq.12301

For a long time, older employees were understood as transmitters of knowledge due to their professional experience. Accordingly, research has largely dealt with factors that promote the transfer of knowledge from older to younger colleagues. The importance of knowledge transfer the other way around, i.e. from younger to older employees, has been neglected so far. Actually, that's amazing when you consider that this is common in other areas of life – parents learn from their children what the latest social media trends are; Grandparents learn how video calls work from their offspring, who are now employed. Only in the corporate context is the subject of reverse knowledge transfer treated rather neglectfully. The continuous learning of older employees is relevant so that they can continue to have fun and feel competent in the face of constantly changing requirements in their job or in their organization. In addition, knowledge-related interactions between older and younger employees make a decisive contribution to the company's success. For example, younger colleagues can be good contact persons for technical knowledge and current scientific findings,

However, obtaining knowledge is an active and also strenuous activity that must be intrinsically motivated (i.e. comes from one’s own drive). So how can the knowledge acquisition of older colleagues be promoted by younger colleagues with the help of inclusive HR measures?

Prof. Dr. Fasbender and Prof. Dr. Gerpott conducted a study of 502 employees which deals with exactly this question and draws on the theory of social learning:

What role do social context and personal factors play?

Based on the theory of social learning, we assume two paths through which age-inclusive HR measures can promote the development efforts of older employees and thus the transfer of knowledge from younger colleagues. Developmental striving refers to the motivation to grow, to increase one's own competence and to master or understand something new at work. Age-inclusive HR measures are practices that aim to create equal opportunities for employees of all ages. This includes, for example, equal access to training and further education opportunities or the promotion of an "age-friendly" corporate culture in which the performance of all age groups is valued.

How contact quality improves knowledge transfer

The willingness to learn something from someone else largely depends on the relationship between the learner and the transmitter of knowledge. In the study conducted, age-inclusive HR measures had a positive effect on the development efforts of older employees by improving the quality of contact. While negative contact led to avoidance behavior, positive contact with younger colleagues contributed to older employees being less concerned about their own performance deficits and wanting to continue their education. Colleagues were perceived less as competition and instead supported each other.

Future opportunities are an important motivational driver

The motivation to learn something new depends heavily on the expectation that the knowledge learned can be applied. How older employees see their future prospects is shaped by age-inclusive HR measures. The age-inclusive HR measures convey to older employees that the company wants to offer them long-term career opportunities. Long-term and positive prospects for the future make older employees feel motivated to continue their education.

The study also shows that a higher development drive means that older employees are more likely to acquire knowledge from younger colleagues. According to this, age-inclusive HR measures have a significant effect on the active acquisition of knowledge by older employees from younger colleagues by showing future opportunities. From this it can be concluded that age-inclusive HR measures play an important role in the long-term success of a company.

What can companies do to promote older employees in a targeted manner?

• Companies should create an environment in which older employees' willingness to learn is encouraged. This can be done through the following measures:
• An offer of far-reaching opportunities for cooperation and interaction for older and younger employees (e.g. cross-departmental project teams or expert networks)
• Training programs for younger employees could be offered to break down stereotypes, in which they are made aware of the development efforts of their older colleagues and are also given strategies for passing on knowledge
• Inverted mentoring programs, also called reverse mentoring (younger employees as mentors of older colleagues)
• Employees of different age groups should be encouraged to participate in trainings that help them to identify their own knowledge and what they can learn from each other (e.g. working through a structured process)

Reference (access freely available):

Fasbender, U., & Gerpott, F. H. (2022). Why do or don’t older employees seek knowledge from younger colleagues? A relation–opportunity model to explain how age-inclusive human resources practices foster older employees’ knowledge seeking from younger colleagues. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 71 (4), 1385-1406. doi:10.1111/apps.12362 [PDF]

iaap-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/apps.12362

On average, we spend almost 90,000 hours of our lives at work. No wonder that with this considerable amount oftime, as social beings, we look for part of our everyday social exchange there - for example in work friendships.

The workplace is a meeting place for people of different ages and offers space to develop friendships with other age groups.

Favored by the rising proportion of older employees and increasingly diverse workforces, friendships between younger and older employees are no longer a rarity. This presents companies with a new challenge: managing the relationships between employees of different ages.

But what are the effects of age-diverse friendships in the workplace and how can they be understood? In order to get to the bottom of these questions, Prof. Dr. Ulrike Fasbender from the University of Hohenheim and Dr. Lisbeth Drury of Birkbeck College, University of London conducted a study.

The scientists interviewed 93 tandems consisting of employees of different ages to find out how the friendship between them affects their motivation, job satisfaction and the intention to stay in their company. Their results indicate both positive and negative consequences.

What are the advantages of mixed-age friendships in the workplace?

Our research found that mixed-age friendships positively enhance employees' motivation to cooperate.

The reason for this lies in "self-expansion". Self-expansion theory holds that close relationships allow people to expand their selves by psychologically claiming another person's resources, perspectives, and identities as their own. When people form meaningful friendships, the self and the other are perceived as "one."

With mixed-age friendships in the workplace, employees can view the successes or failures of fellow colleagues as their own, making them more motivated to work together to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes.

When mixed-age friendships lead to conflict

While mixed-age friendships support intergenerational collaboration, they also create conflict when conflicting demands arise between the formal role of the employee and the informal role of the friend. This is especially true for mixed-age work friendships, where employees of different ages can have different statuses in the organization.

This inter-role conflict is associated with lower job satisfaction and an increased intention to look for a job elsewhere.

What does this mean for leaders?

Our results show that age-diverse friendships in the workplace can have both positive and negative consequences.On the one hand, such friendships promote motivation and cooperation. On the other hand, the dichotomy between the roles of "colleague" and "friend" can put employees under additional pressure and thus contribute to higher turnover .

Therefore, it is important that leaders provide opportunities to develop mixed-age friendships in the workplace and provide support to avoid role conflicts. For example, managers can:

1. Support friendships in the workplace

Showing tolerance for informal exchanges between employees could support the development of workplace friendships. Organizations can also provide social spaces, such as informal seating in common areas or designated break rooms where employees can interact. Particular attention can be paid to bringing different age groups together - for example by celebrating joint successes.

2. Redesign formal organizational structures to encourage collaboration between employees of different age groups

Consider how workplaces could be allocated to age-diverse employees to create opportunities for collaboration and friendship.

A good starting point can be projects in which mixed-age colleagues complete individual tasks in accordance with a common overall goal, then pool the results together and combine the knowledge gained. Through in-depth interaction during tasks where mixed-age colleagues depend on each other, they can develop an understanding of commonalities regardless of age difference.

3. Protect employees from role conflicts

Organizations should defuse role conflicts to avoid age-diverse friendships leading to job dissatisfaction and intentions to quit.

One way for organizations is to allocate resources that allow employees to more successfully juggle their potential role conflicts. Additionally, organizations can also provide clarity and guidance through internal policies to support employees on the do's and don'ts of mixed-age friendships at work.

Reference (access freely available):

Fasbender, U. & Drury, L. (2022). One plus one equals one: Age-diverse friendship and its complex relation to employees’ job satisfaction and turnover intentions. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 31 (4), 510-523. doi:10.1080/1359432X.2021.2006637 [PDF]

www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1359432X.2021.2006637

For more information on the topic (access freely available):

Dietz, L., & Fasbender, U. (2022). Age-diverse workplace friendships: A systematic literature review and recommendations for future research. Work, Aging and Retirement, 8 (2), 163-197. doi:10.1093/workar/waab028 [PDF]

academic.oup.com/workar/advance-article/doi/10.1093/workar/waab028/6428117

Deutschlandfunk Nova, podcast with Prof. Dr. Ulrike Fasbender (2022):
When we make friends at work
https://www.deutschlandfunknova.de/beitrag/offenheit-wenn-wir-im-job-freundschaften-kn%C3%BCpfen